Western Civilization to 1700
“The time for extracting a lesson from history is ever
at hand for those who are wise.”
--
Demosthenes, Athenian orator (384-322 BC)
Key web sties to remember:
Library of Congress Online: www.loc.gov
National Archives: www.access.gpo.gov/nara/
Classic Greco-Roman Literature: http://classics.mit.edu/
Encyclopedia Britannica Online: www.britannica.com
Encarta Online Encyclopedia: www.encarta.msn.com
Dr. Bridges’s Homepage: http://www.southark.edu/academic-departments/dynpage.asp?pageID=637
THE
PREHISTORY OF HUMANITY
Paleontologists
estimate that the earliest human ancestors arose between 3 million and 4
million years ago in eastern
PALEOLITHIC ERA – “Old Stone Age” – The
old stone age marks the period between the earliest use of stone or flint tools
to approximately 10,000 years ago.
Archaeologists and paleontologists note the development of stone and
flint tools, possibly as early as 1.5 million years ago. They discover this by noting the worn stones
sometimes being clutched by the fossilized remains of prehistoric man – stones
that originated hundreds of miles away.
Some 750,000 years ago, man also learned to use fire, allowing for
cooked foods and warmth in the cold of winter.
Scientists have determined this age by the remains of campfires deep
inside caves, undisturbed for millennia.
At
NEOLITHIC ERA – “New Stone Age” – With the new stone age, roughly 10,000 to 6000 BC, stone tools still prevail, but many advancements have been made in the technology. The tools are more refined, pottery begins to appear, and most important, agriculture and the domestication of animals begins. After this, the progress of technology accelerates.
The
earliest known inhabitation of
In
No written records exist from this era. The earliest known written records extend back only 6,000 years. Many of these are fragmentary at best. Oral records can be unreliable. Details and facts often escape the memory, only to be filled with details that never happened. Tales told from one generation to the next can be lost or have the facts twisted beyond recognition. Where written records do not exist, archaeologists can reconstruct elements of these ancient societies by examining the artifacts left behind. With modern technology, archaeologists can also determine the time periods from which these artifacts emerged. Many different techniques exist for dating objects:
Carbon-14 dating (also called radiocarbon dating) – this technique is based on the radioactive decay of the isotope carbon-14. Ordinary carbon (in sugar, pencil leads, diamonds, and the like are carbon-12) has an atomic weight of 12, with 6 protons (the number of protons in the atomic nucleus determines the identity of the element) and 6 neutrons. Carbon-14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. This is an unstable state for carbon, so it tries to shed this extra weight through radioactive decay. This process is as regular as clockwork – so much so that atomic clocks, the most advanced clocks known to modern science, are based upon this principle. Each isotope has a different decay rate, called a half-life. For carbon-14, the half-life is 5,730 years. Since all organic objects contain carbon, carbon-14 dating can be used to date their origins. Once a person dies, the carbon-14 decay process begins. By measuring the isotope ratios, scientists can determine the time of death. For paper and other manufactured products, the date of manufacture can be determined. This process is effective for a time period from 100 to 40,000 years.
Dendrochronology (also called tree-ring dating) – This process dates trees by counting the annual rings. It can only be used as far back as 8,000 years, but is useful for gauging local climate conditions.
Obsidian Hydration – This process measures the accumulation of weathering of obsidian artifacts. This process has a range of 35,000 years and requires calibration for local conditions.
Thermoluminescence – This process measures the accumulation of thermoluminescent crystals that appear from objects when heated at high temperatures (particularly from fire). This process can be used to date pottery, heated stones, and calcite artifacts. This process has a range of up to 1 million years but is limited by environmental contamination.
Potassium-Argon dating (also known as radiopotassium dating) – This process measures the isotope ratios of potassium in volcanic rocks and minerals. This process has an unlimited range, but the dates are only approximate. The margin of error gets larger as time progresses.
DATING SYSTEMS – different societies use
different calendars to date important events.
These calendars can mark important religious and secular events, the
society’s belief when the world was created.
For example, the Jewish calendar dates to the perceived beginning of the
world. The year 2004 in the Christian
calendar, the calendar most commonly used around the world because of the
political and economic dominance that Christian nations have around the world,
translates to the year 5764 in the Jewish calendar. The Muslim calendar begins with the prophet Muhammad’s flight from
BC: Before Christ. For example, 234 years Before Christ, or 234 BC.
AD: In Latin, Anno Domini, or, “In the Year of Our Lord.” For example, AD 2004, or In the Year of Our Lord 2004.
CE/BCE: The monk, however, did not have the exact year of Christ’s birth. Scholars believe that Christ was born sometime between 4 and 6 BC. Some scholars try to adjust this discrepancy by using the “CE/BCE” system – Before Common Era and Common Era instead of AD and BC.
BP: Typically used by archaeologists, this simply means years Before Present. Dealing with ancient events, this has become a quick shorthand for scholars of events and civilizations in the distant past.
Medieval scholars would often use their king’s reign as a year (the seventh year of the reign of …)
THE
DAWN OF CIVILIZATION
The
domestication of animals and crops allowed people to settle in one place for an
extended period of time. No longer did
individuals have to follow their food supply – they learned how to keep their
food supply in one place, expand this supply, and keep it within arm’s
reach. Permanent settlements began to
appear around the world once agriculture was developed. The earliest known permanent settlements are
the
In
Societies also begin to craft metals. By 4000 BC, copper smelting had begun in some areas. By 1200 BC, the Bronze Age begins as humans began to learn how to blend two metals, copper and tin, and smelt them into a stronger substance, bronze. This allowed for the development of stronger weapons and experimentation into the development of stronger metals.
Most early civilization arose in
major river valleys. The constant supply
of water, fertile soil, and abundant vegetation created a stable food supply
and allowed a society to stay in one place for an extended period and evolve
further. The only major exception to
this is the Mesoamerican civilizations of
Tigris-Euphrates Rivers (
Indus-Ganges Rivers (
Yangtze (Yellow) River (
The
Sumerians – This is among the earliest civilizations to emerge in
the
The city-states were walled communities, built for common defense. Uruk itself covered 1,000 acres, had walls six miles long, with defense towers every 30-35 feet. The buildings within the city were primarily huts made from sun-dried bricks. At the center of the city was a ziggurat (a stepped temple) to the local god. Sumerian governments were theocracies, that is they believed that the gods ruled the cities and kings were merely agents of the gods. In other societies, kings would declare themselves to be gods themselves or descended from the gods in order to awe the people and frighten them away from the possibility of rebellion. Some 90% of Sumerians were farmers. There is evidence of production of woolens textiles, pottery, and metalwork. By 3000 BC, the wheel had been developed, allowing much faster and more efficient trade and transportation throughout the region. A class-based society, Sumerians routinely used slave labor, either buying slaves at markets or using captured enemy troops and civilians as slaves.
Akkadian Empire – In 2340 BC, Sargon of Akkad, to
the north of the
Amorites – In the 19th century BC, the Amorites swarmed
into the region and conquered the city-states.
The Amorites began imposing their own culture on the Sumerians,
producing a unique mixture of beliefs, language, and customs. Among the most notable of the Amorite kings
was Hammurabi, who ruled from 1792 to1750 BC. He built
See more on
the Code of Hammurabi at: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/hammenu.htm
The
This website provides a wealth of
information on the famous pyramids of
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pyramid/
For more information on Egyptian Hieroglyphics, see this web site:
http://history.smsu.edu/jchuchiak/HST%20101--Lecture%203--Egyptian%20Hieroglyphs.htm
Middle Kingdom (2050-1652 BC) –
Postempire (1085 BC- 30 BC) -- The Postempire
period covered ten dynasties and lasted from 1085 BC to 30 BC. During this period,
Egyptian women had some property rights and could operate businesses, but they were supposed to stay out of politics. Some Egyptian queens tried to become the power behind the throne, influencing their husbands and key officials, and even influencing their sons once they became phahroh. Sometimes, they had so much influence that they became phahroh in their own right. Queen Hatshepsut took over for her son when he died. It was seen as a natural succession since she had effectively made all of his decisions.
Hyksos – Little is known about the Hyksos. What we know about primarily stems from their conquest of the Egyptians in 1652 BC, which ended the Egyptian Middle Kingdom. They introduced the Egyptians to their much more advanced weaponry, made of bronze. This was the first Egyptian encounter with bronze. Angry at Hyksos rule, the Egyptians adapted these new weapons to their own use and staged an uprising against the Hyksos in 1567 BC. The Hyksos were routed and the Egyptian New Kingdom began. As for the Hyksos, they largely vanished after this.
Hittites – This group began migrating into the area of
Hebrews – According to the tradition in the book of Genesis
(traditionally believed to have been written by Moses), the Hebrews
were descended from Abraham, they had migrated from
Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC, the
Israelite kingdom organized. Among the
early kings, Saul (ca. 1020 BC-1000 BC) was killed in battle with the
Philistines and replaced by David (1000 BC-970 BC). David defeated the Philistines and
established Jewish control over all of
Judaism – Monotheism had started to emerge in the western world. The Jews believed that God ruled the world and all obeyed His will. Also, they believed that God created nature but He was not in nature. God was a god of mercy and love but could also punish disobedience. The Jewish faith centers on three ideas: the covenant (the belief that the Jews are God’s chosen people and that if the Israelites promise to follow God, He will protect them), the law (the Ten Commandments and the idea that all are equal in the eyes of God), and the prophets (messengers from God). Exodus defines the Jewish experience, the return to the promised land. Despite centuries of conquest and oppression, the Jewish culture and faith has endured, symbolic of the Exodus experience.
Philistines – This group had moved into the coastal regions of the Israelite Kingdom while they Hebrews were in Egypt. They mixed with the Hebrews as they returned from Egypt, openly displaying their polytheistic faith. This led to numerous admonitions by Hebrew prophets against practicing idolatry, lest the Judaic faith be compromised. After a series of wars, the Philistines are eventually conquered by the Hebrews.
Phoenicians – This group populated the area near present-day Lebanon and Jordan. They were an extensive trading society, with connections throughout the Mediterranean region. They traded in everything – lumber, especially from the famed Cyprus trees of the region, various grains and dyes, as well as luxurious gold and jewels. They were known as cultural “transmitters” because there trade activities brought them into contact with numerous societies which allowed them to spread the ideas and traditions of these societies elsewhere. They developed colonies throughout the Mediterranean which survived after the Phoenician conquest by the Persians. One of these colonies, Carthage, in North Africa, became a major power in its own right, challenging the Romans for domination of the western Mediterranean.
The Phoenicians produced an alphabet by the ninth century BC which the Greeks adapted for their language. After the Romans came into contact with the Greeks, the Romans, impressed with the extent of Greek artistic and intellectual achievements, adapted the Greek alphabet into use in the Latin alphabet. The Latin alphabet is the basis for the modern English alphabet. The letters used to write this sentence can thus trace their origins to ancient Phoenicia.
Assyrian Empire (700 BC – 605 BC) – From their capital at Nineveh on the upper Tigris River, the Assyrians take control f an empire extending to the Persian Gulf, western Iran, Iraq, Syria, Phoenicia, southern Turkey, Cyprus, and Egypt. It was governed by an absolute monarchy with the provinces controlled by hereditary governorships. Communication throughout the empire was maintained through a series of stations from which messengers would ride horses as quickly as possible to the next station. Messages and responses to important queries could be sent and received in a week’s time. Internal revolts disrupt the empire. Nineveh falls to the Chaldeans and the Medeans in 612 BC. The empire is divided up among the two powers in 605 BC.
Chaldeans – After conquering the
Assyrians, the Chaldeans went to expand their power
further, capturing Judah and destroying Jerusalem in 586 BC. This is the destruction of the First Temple,
in which the Ark of the Covenant was kept – the heart of the Jewish faith. The Babylonian Captivity begins at this point
and lasts until 538 BC, when the Hebrews, imprisoned
by the Chaldeans in
Cyrus did not move to exploit the
new resources of his empire or enslave the people or even force them to give up
their culture as previous conquerors had done.
Instead, Cyrus allows the Jews to return to
Cyrus’s son, Cambyses
(530-522 BC) expanded the empire with the conquest of
Like the Assyrians, the Persians used a system of staging posts to relay messages from one end of the empire to the other as rapidly as possible. This “pony express” system was extremely effective. The governorships of the different provinces (or satrapies) eventually became hereditary. But to subsidize their luxurious lifestyles, these officials demanded higher and higher taxes from their subjects, leading to a growing resentment of the Persian government. Their armies were made up of peoples from all over the empire, instead of the Persians alone.
Zoroastrianism – the religion of the Persians was Zoroastrianism. It stemmed from Zoroaster, a semi-legendary figure apparently born around 660 BC. His revelation caused him to form a new religion. The Zend Avesta was the Zoroastrian holy book, but this text was not written down until the third century AD. Believers felt that the old Persian god Ahuramazda was the only true god. Ahuramazda possessed all of the positive abstract qualities of morality, truth, life, and love. Ahriman was the exact opposite, the embodiment of death, darkness, lies, and evil. Zoroastrians believed that humans played a role in the battle of good against evil, but followers of Ahuramazda would triumph in the end. His followers would be rewarded with eternity in paradise, while evildoers would be sent to an abyss of darkness and despair. Although Ahuramazda was the only god in the religion, over time Ahuramazda and Ahriman became co-equals in the Zoroastrian faith.
Development
of Writing:
Several
civilizations developed their own alphabet, but the English alphabet is derived
from the alphabet of the Phoenicians.
The Phoenician alphabet can trace elements of its origins to
Phoenician alphabet: circa 1500 BC
Greek alphabet: circa 900 BC
Early Aramaic: circa 700 BC
Nabatian: from a small trading
society near
Arabic: replaces Aramaic by about AD 700
Early Latin: circa 600 BC
Classical “Modern” Latin: circa 300 BC
From: www.ancientscripts.com and http://phoenicia.org/alphabet.html.
History of Asia
This web site has information on the history of
http://www.friesian.com/sangoku.htm
Greek Philosophers
The Greeks, most
notably the Athenians, were renowned for their scholarly works. Art, literature, architecture, math, science,
philosophy, and many other subjects captured the attention of the Greeks. Using logic and deductive reasoning, the
Greeks developed a wide range of theories in many scientific fields. Most mathematical concepts used today have
Greek origins. Tragically, some of their
works have been lost over the centuries.
Only fragments remain of some works.
Despite this, thousands of volumes have survived, giving us an idea of
how the Greeks lived. Their works still
inspire to this day. Browse through some
of their works online at http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index.html. Among the more notable of the classical Greek
thinkers:
Writers:
Homer (ca. 700 BC) – Writer of two of the most famous Epic poems of ancient
Herodotus (ca. 484 BC- ca. 425 BC) – Considered to be the first known historian.
Founded Greek colony of Thurii in
southern
Thucydides (ca. 460 BC-ca. 400 BC) – historian and former general. Deposed in 424
BC for failing to
prevent the fall of Amphipolis to the Spartans. Writes The
History of the Peloponnesian Wars.
He writes that human nature is a constant.
Aeschylus (526 BC – 456 BC) – First known writer of tragic plays. The tragedian wrote
90 plays, only 7 of which have survived in their entirety. Most Greek tragedies
meant to be written as trilogies. In Aeschylus’s Orestes, Agamemnon sacrifices
his daughter to the gods and his bereaved wife kills him. In the next play, their
son Orestes seeks revenge for his father’s death and kills his mother,
Clytemnestra. Orestes is pursued by the Furies and eventually tried by the
goddess Athena and acquitted. Reason triumphs over evil in this trilogy.
Sophocles (ca. 496 BC – 406 BC) – Writer of the Oedipus trilogy (ca. 429 - ca. 406 BC).
Euripides (ca. 485 BC – 406 BC) – Writer of The Bacchae, in which he is critical of
traditional Greek religion.
Aristophanes (ca. 450 BC – ca. 385 BC) – In The Clouds, he satirizes the philosopher
Socrates. In Lysistrata, he opposes the Peloponnesian Wars.
Scientists and Philosophers:
Sophists – Traveling philosophers who stressed the importance of rhetoric and believed
there was no absolute right or wrong. They believed that true wisdom came from
being able to perceive and pursue one’s own good.
Socrates (469 BC – 399 BC) – No known writings have survived. Our knowledge if his
philosophies come only from his student, Plato. He had been a critic of the
Sophists. He believed that all real knowledge existed within a person and anyone could gain that knowledge through examination of themselves and their perceptions of the world. “The unexamined life is not worth living.”
Plato (ca. 429 BC – 347 BC) – Believed there existed two planes of existence: the
celestial plane, where Ideas and Ideal Forms (of reality) exist and have always existed; and the material plane. He believed that to know the Forms was to know Truth.
In Republic, he devises his ideal form of government, writing that one
cannot attain an ethical life unless he lives in a just and rational state. “Unless . . .
political power and philosophy meet together . . . there can be no rest from
troubles,” writes Plato. The ruling elites (philosopher-kings) are at the top of this
society, but they (including women) should be removed from concerns for wealth
or prestige. The next class would be the warriors (driven by courage) who protect
the society, and then the masses (not driven by courage but by desire) who are the
artisans and producers of the society.
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) – A student of Plato and later a tutor to Alexander the
Great. He wrote voluminously on a wide variety of subjects, from politics and society to religion and ethics to astronomy and biology.
He authors a geocentric theory of the universe which holds sway for centuries. For Aristotle, logic is the tool of inquiry; and for a person to have knowledge of a particular thing, a person must understand not only what it is but its causality, why it is. He differs with Plato on a number of issues, including his theory of forms.
In his Politics, he examines 158 constitutions and forms of government
and divides the best governments into three categories: monarchy, aristocracy, and constitutional government. He warns, however, that these governments can degenerate into tyranny, oligarchy, and anarchy.
Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC – ca. 377 BC) – Considered to be the father of medicine, the Hippocratic Oath is named for him, although it is not known if he wrote
this oath for caregivers to do no harm to patients. His style of medicine, known for professional detachment, and direct, clinical observations begins ascribing the causes of disease to environmental factors.
Aristarchus (ca. 310 BC – 230 BC) – Greek astronomer who postulates the heliocentric theory of the universe.
Eratosthenes (ca. 275-194 BC) – Postulates that the Earth is round and calculates the
Earth’s circumference at 24,675 miles, close to the modern accepted value of 24,830 miles.
Euclid – (ca. 300 BC) – Elements, his systematic organization of the fundamentals of
geometry became the standard for centuries.
Archimedes (287 BC-212 BC) – Mathematician who writes extensively on geometric
spheres and cylinders. He devises the mathematical constant of pi, which establishes the constant ratio of a circle’s diameter to its circumference (approximately 3.14). He is believed to have developed a system of pumping out water from mines and developed the theory of the specific gravity and density of objects. His renowned work with levers led him to say, “Give me a lever and a place to stand, and I will move the world.”
Epicurus (341 BC-270 BC) – Did not believe that the Greek gods played an active role
in the affairs of the world.
Epicureanism – Philosophy derived from the writings of Epicurus. Epicureans believe
that happiness is the goal of life and the means to achieving happiness is pleasure. They define pleasure not as hedonistic or gluttonous pursuits but as freedom from emotional turmoil and freedom from worry. To do this, people must separate themselves from politics and society.
Zeno (335 BC-263 BC) – Founder of stoicism. He wrote that happiness is the supreme
good, but can only be found in virtue and living in harmony with the divine will (or the will of nature).
Stoicism – Unlike the Epicureans, stoics see public service as noble. Everyone contains
a divine spark (a spark or energy from creation or nature), thus making everyone equal spiritually. Stoics value reason.
Greeks – The Greek civilization emerged in the Aegean Sea region
around 2800 BC. It is called the Minoan
civilization after King Minos of Crete. The Minoans reached their height from
2000-1450 BC but suffered a sudden collapse around 1450 BC. At this point, the Mycenaean civilization
took over as
The center of the classical Greek
community was the polis, or city-state, in which each community would
essentially act as its own country, ruling over small areas surrounding
them.
Peloponnesian War (431 BC-404 BC)
For
a chronology of Greek History, see: http://www.filetron.com/grkmanual/detailgreekchrono.html
This
site shows a more detailed picture of Greek History: http://www.providence.edu/dwc/grkhist.htm
By the end of the fifth century BC,
Macedon, to the far north in
After
coming to the Macedonian throne at age 20, Alexander went on to conquer most of
the known world. In 334 BC, he entered
Asia Minor, then Persian territory, with an army of 37,000 men (half of the
troops were Macedonian, half were from other Greek communities) and accompanied
by an army of scientists, engineers, and scholars ready to learn about the new
lands Alexander was set to conquer. He
surprised the Persians with the ferocity of his armies. By 332, Alexander controlled
Darius III was pursued by Alexander, even after his empire had collapsed. Eventually, Darius was killed by his own men in 330.
Over the next three years,
Alexander charged steadily eastward, conquering the whole of modern
After the death of Alexander, his
empire was split into four parts by various factions. Alexander had only said that his empire was
to be left “to the strongest.” The Hellenistic Kingdoms (Hellenistic
means “to imitate the Greeks”) that emerged included the Seleucid Dynasty
(encompassing most of the
The Rise of
According to the old Roman legend,
From 750 BC to 550 BC,
Greeks began colonies in
The first form of government for
the Romans was a monarchy, from 753 BC to 509 BC. Some seven men ruled as
kings, apparently with two of the last three being Etruscan. In 509,
the Romans overthrew the monarchy and established a republic. The
republic would last for five centuries, collapsing in 31 BC, but the emperors
who followed still referred to
Roman religion was a polytheistic religion, with Romans worshipping a variety of gods for the different forces of nature. Eventually, the Roman and Greek religions merged, with the Roman gods taking on the characteristics of the ancient Greek gods.
As
In the
meantime,
Although
by 287 BC, all Romans were equal under the law and the different classes
could intermarry, the wealthiest families still controlled the politics of
the city.
Between 233 BC and 133 BC, 80% of the consuls came from 26 families -- more and more power was being concentrated into fewer and fewer hands. Factions began to arise among the nobility. In the late second century, two idealistic reformers hoped to bring change to the Roman system by making more land available to the common Roman rather than simply the aristocrats. Tiberius Gracchus and his brother, Gaius Gracchus, were extremely popular for their efforts to bring more land to the Roman people. But their land redistribution attempts led to jealousy among a number of senators, who had both brothers murdered.
In 107
BC, Marius became consul and began reorganizing the Roman army, requiring the
troops swear loyalty to him and not
The
aristocrats of the republic degenerated into two major factions, the optimates, favoring increased privileges for the
aristocracy, and the populares, who claimed to speak
for the common man. By 60 BC, three men
came to effectively hold all power in
Caesar continued to hold elections,
but he made sure that his supporters would win.
He increased the size of the senate to 900, also ensuring that his
supporters would be in control. He
reorganized the administration of the Roman government, introduced the Julian
calendar (a modification of the Egyptian calendar with elements of the old
Roman calendar thrown in, which is the basis of the modern Gregorian calendar
used in the west since 1582), and founded a number of colonies for
veterans. He commissioned a number of
building projects and planned a number of campaigns in the east until his
death. On
Caesar’s leading allies quickly
formed the Second Triumvirate, comprised of Caesar’s top aide and confidant,
Marc Antony; Caesar’s nephew and adopted heir,
Octavian Caesar; and one of the richest men in
Emperors of
Julio-Claudians
Augustus (27 BC - AD 14) – Octavian, Julius
Caesar’s nephew. He changes his name to
Augustus, which means “revered one,” although he prefers the title of “princeps,” or “first citizen.” His armies briefly conquer western
Caligula (37 - 41) – first emperor to be assassinated, by his own guards. Known for his psychotic and hedonistic behavior.
Nero (54 - 68) – forced to commit suicide as troops rose up against him. Organized persecution of the Christians begins. Last of the Julio-Claudians
AD 69: “Year of the
Four Emporers”
Galba (68 - 69) – AD 69: Year of the Four Emperors. No clear successor, civil wars: Otho (69), Vitellius (69) (both assassinated).
The Flavians
Vespasian (69 - 79) – The rise of Vespasian begins a period of stability in
Titus Flavius (79 - 81) – eldest son of Vespasian.
Domitian (81 - 96) -- paranoid younger son of Vespasian, assassinated. Flavian Dynasty ends.
“Five Good Emperors”
Nerva (96 - 98) – first of the “Five Good Emperors.” Elderly when he begins his reign, his rule is noted for internal peace and an orderly succession. First of the “Adoptive Emperors.”
Trajan
(98 - 117) –
Hadrian (117 - 138) – last of the Adoptive Emperors.
The Antonines
Antoninus Pius (138 - 161) – beginning of the Antonine Dynasty.
Marcus Aurelius (161 - 180) (co-emperor Lucius Verus, 161 - 169), Aurelius is a renowned Stoic philosopher and the last of the five good emperors. His thoughts on philosophy and morality were published to wide acclaim in Meditations in 167 (available here at
http://classics.mit.edu/Antoninus/meditations.html).
Commodus (180 - 193) – Marcus Aurelius’s
unstable son, known for dressing like a gladiator and even killing slaves in
the gladiatorial ring. He is
assassinated in 193.
The Severans
Septimius Severus (193 - 211) – first of the Severan Dynasty, a distinguished North African family. The “military monarchy” begins as the Severans rely on the military to maintain their control of the Roman state.
Caracalla (211 - 217) – grants citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire.
Heliogabalus (218 - 222)
Alexander Severus (222 - 235) – last of the Severans. A period of instability begins as civil wars envelop the empire. The average term for emperors between 235 and 284 in less than two and a half years. Only two emperors during this period escape violent deaths.
A Century of
Instability
Maximinus Thrax (235 - 238)
Gordian I and Gordianus II Africanus (238)
Valerian I (253-260) – captured by the Persians and dies in captivity.
Claudius II Gothicus (268-270) – a famed general renowned for his victories against the Goths.
Aurelian (270-275) – stability
temporarily restored to
Carinus (283-284) -- throne was also claimed by Numerian
Tetrarchy
Diocletian (284 - 305) -- co-emperor Maximian. Tetrarchy created with 2 Augusti and 2 caesars, empire divided into 4 prefectures.
Galerius (305 - 311) co-emperor with Constantius Chlorus (305-306). Edict of Toleration (311) ends persecution of Christians.
Constantine and His
Heirs
Constantine I, the Great (312 - 337); throne was also
claimed by Maxentius, (306 - 312),
Licinius (308 - 334),
and Maximinus Daia, 308 - 313. Rebellions put down. Edict of
Constantius II (337 - 361) – co-emperors Constantine II, 337 - 340, and Constans, 337 - 350; throne also briefly claimed by a general named Magnentius, 350 - 353, but he is repelled.
Julian the Apostate (361 - 363) – last non-Christian emperor.
Valentinian I (364 - 375) -- co-emperor Valens, 364 - 378
Valentinian II (375 - 392) -- co-emperor Gratianus, 375-383; throne claimed by usurper Magnus Maximus (383 - 388), rebellion crushed.
Theodosius I (379 - 395) – Theodosian Code (392) bans all non-Christian
religions. After his death, the
permanent division of the empire begins as his two unremarkable sons begin to
rule, Honorius (age 10) in the West and Arcadius (age 18) in the East from
Division of the
Empire
Honorius (395 - 423) -- co-emperor Constantius III, 421; A child when he
comes to the throne, he never matures into the position and the real power early
in his reign is through the commander-in-chief of the military, Stilicho, a German general commanding Roman troops. He serves under Honorius,
keeping the barbarian armies at bay until his death in 408. Sack of
Valentinian III (423 - 455) -- throne also claimed by Joannes (423 - 425). Valentinian has the last stable reign though Rome’s power is collapsing.
Petronius Maximus (455) – Vandals sack
Avitus (456 - 457) – Ricimer commander-in-chief (456-472). Although German, Ricimer effectively becomes the real power in the Roman government as he makes and unmakes several emperors during his tenure as magister militium, or master of the military.
Libius Severus (461 - 465)
Julius Nepos (474-475/480) – Deposed in 475, Zeno of Constantinople accepts him as Western Roman Emperor until his death in 480. He never reclaims the throne and lives the rest of his life in Illyria.
Romulus Augustulus
(475-476) – a youth of 14 and son of a German general in the Roman Army, he is
deposed by Odoacer and sent into exile. Odoacer offers the
throne to Zeno, who refuses as he continues to cling to Julius Nepos. Odoacer decides against offering a new puppet candidate for
emperor of
End of the
BYZANTINE EMPERORS
Theodosius I 379-395
Arcadius 395-408 – Final Division between the East and West
Theodosius II 408-450
Marcianus 450-457
Leo I 457-474
Leo II 474
Zeno I 474-491 – Empire in the West collapses. Making of the Byzantine state.
Basiliscus 475-476 (co-emperor with Zeno)
Anastasius I 491-518
Justin I 518-527
Justinian
I 527-565 –
Justin II
565-578 –
Tiberius II Constantine 578-582
Maurice I 582-602
Phocas 602-610
Heraclius 610-641 –
Constantine III 641
Heraclonas 641
Constans II 'Pogonatus' 641-668
Constantine IV 668-685
Justinian II 'Rhinotmetus' 685-695
Leontius II 695-698
Tiberius III698-705
Justinian II (restored) 705-711
Philippicus 711-713
Anastasius II 713-715
Theodosius III 715-717
Leo III the Isaurian 717-741
Artabasdus 742
Constantine V Copronymus 743-775
Leo IV 775-780
Constantine VI 780-797
Irene 797-802
Nicephorus I 802-811
Stauracius 811
Michael I, Rhangabe 811-813
Leo V, the Armenian 813-820
Michael II 820-829 – Macedonian Dynasty
Theophilus II 829-842
Michael III 842-867
Bardas 842-866
Theophilus II 867
Basil I, the Macedonian 867-886
Leo VI, the Wise 886-912
Alexander III 912-913
Constantine VII, Porphyrogenitus 913?959
Romanus I, Lecapenus 919-944
Romanus II 959-963
Nicephorus II, Phocas 963-969
John I, Tzimisces 969-976
Basil II, Bulgaroktonus 976-1025
Constantine VIII 1025-1028
Zoë1028-1050
Romanus III, Argyrus 1028-1034
Michael IV, the Paphlagonian 1034-1041
Michael V, Calaphates 1041-1042
Constantine IX, Monomachus 1042-1054
Theodora 1054-1056
Michael VI, Stratioticus 1056-1057
Isaac I Comnenus 1057-1059
Constantine X, Dukas 1059-1067
Andronicus 1067
Constantine XI 1067
Romanus IV, Diogenes 1067-1071
Michael VII, Parapinakes 1071-1078
Nicephorus III, Botaniates 1078-1081
Alexius I Comnenus 1081-1118
John II Comnenus 1118-1143
Manuel I Comnenus 1143-1180
Alexius II Comnenus 1180-1183
Andronicus I Comnenus 1182-1185
Isaac II Angelus 1185-1195
Alexius III Angelus 1195-1203 – death sparks a succession dispute and invasion.
Alexius IV Angelus 1203-1204
Isaac II Angelus 1203-1204
Alexius V Murzuphlus 1204
Theodore I Lascaris 1204-1222 – Latin Empire of Constantinople begins
John III Ducas Vatatzes 1222-1254
Theodore II Lascaris 1254-1258 – Latin Empire remains under Crusader control
John IV Lascaris 1258-1261 – Latin Empire overthrown.
Michael VIII Palaeologus 1259-1282 – Last Byzantine dynasty. Constantinople is reduced to little more than a city-state, but retains a lucrative trading position in the Mediterranean area.
Andronicus II Palaeologus 1282-1328
Andronicus III Palaeologus 1328-1341
John V Palaeologus 1341-1391
John VI Cantacuzenus 1347-1354
Andronicus IV Palaeologus 1376-1379
John VII Palaeologus 1390
Manuel II Palaeologus 1391-1425
John VIII Palaeologus 1425-1448
Constantine
XI Palaeologus 1449-1453 – killed in palace by
invading Ottoman Turks. Last surviving
remnant of
THE EMERGENCE OF CHRISTIANITY
The history of Christianity centers on one
man, Jesus of Nazareth, whom Christians consider the living embodiment of God.
Historians believe he was born between 6 BC and 4 BC. Much of his early
life is shrouded in uncertainty; most of his evangelism took place in a very
short period before his death. Christ (which is Greek for "the
anointed one") taught a simple message of love, spiritual salvation, and
universal brotherhood. In one Bible passage, he summarized what he called
God's two highest commandments: "Love the Lord thy God with all thy heart
and with all thy soul and with all thy mind and with
all thy strength . . . and love thy neighbor as thyself."
For Christians, acceptance of Christ as their spiritual savior
will lead to an eternal life in heaven after their earthly bodies have
died. Christians believe that Christ is the son of God (the one creator
God, and that there are no others), but Christ is part of a Holy Trinity
comprised of God the Father, Christ the Son, and the Holy Spirit. These
are not three gods, but one being with three different aspects. Many
people reported that Christ performed a number of miracles, including healing
the sick and the blind and raising the dead. Jesus spoke of peace and
forgiveness. He said that if someone is struck, they should simply turn
the other cheek and to love their enemies. This was contrary to a Roman
world where toleration, forgiveness, and mercy were not prized traits,
but rather one of vengeance and cruelty.
For more on the life and teachings of Christ, see: http://bibleontheweb.com/Bible.asp.
Jesus lived in a time of deep divisions
in his native Jewish community. The Romans arrived in
Sadducees: The Sadducees believed
in rigid adherence to Hebrew law and cooperation with
Pharisees: The Pharisees, like the Sadducees, also believed in strict adherence
to Hebrew ritual and law. But, the Pharisees wanted independence from
Essenes:
The Essenes lived primarily in the
Zealots: The Zealots favored a violent revolution from Roman control.
Christians believe that Christ's birth was through a miracle, that Jesus's mother, Mary, was a virgin when she became pregnant and gave birth. The birth, death, and resurrection of Christ are the heart of Christian belief. Throughout his ministry, the followers of Jesus grew in number as they heard his message and his miracles. Jesus regularly clashed with many Jewish officials by declaring that these officials had desecrated synagogues by allowing money changers to perform their business there. In one famous instance, Jesus overturned the money changers' tables and ordered them out of the synagogue. In another instance, he chastised one Pharisee for his criticism of Christ's healings being performed on the Sabbath day. Christ was betrayed by one of his disciples, Judas Iscariot, for thirty pieces of silver. In AD 29, Christ was brought before the territorial governor, Pontius Pilate, and sentenced to death by crucifixion. Christ was beaten by the Roman guards and then crucified, dying after nine excruciating hours. According to Christians, on the third day, he then rose from the dead.
Eleven of the twelve disciples that
followed Jesus were martyred as they took Christ's message throughout the
By the end of the first century, Christianity was not just a movement within Judaism but a separate church altogether. And by AD 100, Christianity had been established in most of the major cities of the Roman Empire.
Because Christians worshipped only
one God, it was seen as an affront to the Roman government, which required its
citizens to worship the emperor. Such refusals were seen as little more
than treason. Christians, disgusted by the decadence and corruption of
Roman society, withdrew from society in protest to concentrate on their
spirituality. In the meantime, Christianity was declared illegal and
a number of emperors conducted wide-ranging pogroms to root out
and destroy the budding faith. Nero began the first of the
systematic persecutions of Christians, blaming Christians for a fire that
consumed
The
emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in 313 with the Edict of
Milan. He became a Christian after a dream before a climactic battle with
secured the throne for him. He dreamed of a great cross falling from the
sky and the words, "In this sign, you will receive victory." He
had the cross painted on the shields of his troops the next day and won the
The bishops of the four cities of
Many questions began appearing
about Christian theology and the nature of the Trinity and of Jesus
himself. Arrias, one preacher, argued that
Christ's nature was human and that the Trinity was three separate
persons. The Arian Heresy, as it was called, gathered considerable
strength among the Germanic tribes to the north of the
Many early Christians were
ascetics, rejecting the corruption of the material world and living in the
wilderness to concentrate on their spiritual relationship with God. With
Christians persecuted and ridiculed in Roman society, these first century
ascetics sought to emulate the poverty of Christ and take solace in the
salvation in the afterlife. By the fifth century, many monastic movements
began to emerge as groups of these ascetics banded together into spiritual
communities seeking refuge from the world. The monasteries grew across
Many early Christians clashed over
the need for scientific and classical knowledge versus concentration strictly
on the Bible. Tertullian (ca. 160- ca. 225)
rejected knowledge and intellectual study as distractions from an individual's
relationship with God. He believed that all the knowledge any faithful
Christian needed was in the Bible. Others disagreed, arguing that both
classical and biblical knowledge were necessary. Many theologians turned
to Greek philosophers, particularly Stoic philosophers (which had many
philosophical parallels to Christianity), to explain complicated theological
concepts.
THE
INHERITORS OF
In 382, Theodosius I allowed entire
tribes to begin moving into
Alemanni: a small tribe that came to settle in what is now southwestern
Anglo-Saxons: The Angles and Saxons, tribes from northern
Eventually, the Anglo-Saxons took
control of
Huns: This tribe swept westward from
Franks: After having entered Roman territory in 405, they began
taking advantage of the weakness of the Roman state. The Franks began
establishing communities in central and eastern Gaul while the Romans abandoned
Britain and northern Gaul remained loyal to the empire but completely cut
off. The Franks did not declare independence but independence was soon an
established fact as their influence expanded in Gaul. In 482, Clovis
(rules until 511), established his independent kingdom and converted to
Catholic Christianity, turning away from the Arian form of Christianity then
winning over the Germanic tribes, and making his kingdom a powerful political
ally of the Roman Catholic Church. By the time of his death in 511, his
kingdom included most of modern France and western Germany. In accordance
with Frankish customs, he divided his kingdom among his three sons upon his
death In Frankish society, a gradual fusion took
place between the Roman population and the Frankish population in manners of
laws, customs, and cultures. By 750, Frankish Gaul was essentially an
agrarian system with the old Roman villa system overlaid on it, which became
the basis of the feudal system in the Middle Ages as Frankish Gaul transforms
itself into modern
Ostrogoths: After Odoacer, the king of the Ostrogoths,
conquered the Romans in 476, he proclaimed himself the King of Italy (kings
often had more than one title) and ended the Roman imperial system. Odoacer would rule until his death in 493. Odoacer maintained the Roman administrative system (known
for its efficiency) and kept the Roman Senate intact. The Senate would
continue to meet with its old guard of Roman aristocrats until 568. Odoacer and his most notable successor, Theodoric
(512-526), had a lot of respect for Roman accomplishments. Theodoric received a Roman education while growing up as a
hostage in Roman custody. This system of exchanging hostages, usually the
children of rulers, was meant to keep the peace between different groups, but
did not always work. The Ostrogoths established
a segregated society. The Romans still expressed considerable contempt
for their Germanic conquerors but offered no resistance to them. The
Romans and the Ostorgoths maintained separate legal
system for the two separate groups. In 535, the Byzantines, led by the
general Belisarius, began the quest to reconquer
Vandals: Gaiseric, king of the
Vandals, led his people across the Roman frontiers in the 410s and settled in
what is now southern
Visigoths: Alaric, king of the Visigoths, led an invasion of the
Islam: After the collapse of the Roman Empire, three major successors slowly filled in the vacuum caused by Rome's absence: the Latin West (a conglomeration of Germanic tribes mixing with the remnants of old Roman culture), the Byzantine East (the Eastern Roman Empire, which absent of Roman influence began becoming increasingly Greek in its language and culture, even being referred to by contemporaries in western Europe as "the Greek empire"), and Islam.
In the seventh century, Islam began
its dramatic rise, one that eventually swept away the Byzantines and
encompassed the whole of the
Muslims essentially believe that Moses and Jesus were important prophets but Allah gave his final, complete revelations to Muhammad. The Sharia is a law code based on Islam, and is practiced in many Muslim nations. Muslims are forbidden to eat pork, gamble, drink alcohol, or engage in any dishonest behavior, but marriages were arranged by the parents and men were allowed to have more than one wife. Individuals who submit themselves to the will of Allah could receive everlasting life. There are five basic pillars of the Muslim faith:
The five pillars of Islam:
1. Belief in Allah and Muhammad as his prophet.
2. pray five times daily and observe Friday as the Sabbath day.
3. observe the holy month of Ramadan as a time for fasting and prayer. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim calendar and shifts in the Christian calendar.
4. Make a pilgrimage to
5. Give charity to the poor.
Muhammad began preaching his
message in
The Muslim caliphate expanded
rapidly. The Byzantines and Persians were in the midst of a war at this
time, and the Byzantines were on the edge o victory when the Muslims attacked
both states. In 636, the Byzantines were defeated at Yarmuk,
which opened the way for the Muslim conquest of
By the middle of the seventh
century, the Muslims had conquered all of northern
The Muslim
advance ran out of steam. In 718, the Byzantines destroyed the Muslim
fleet, deflecting a major attack on the
The Muslims preserved much of
the ancient Greco-Roman knowledge of the ancient world, and Muslim scholars
made a number of advances of their own which were later transmitted to the
west In particular, the idea of zero was completely unknown to the west
until the late Middle Ages. The modern numerical system used in
Roman Numeral System: I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
Arabic Numeral System: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mayan Numeral System: 0 . .. … …. ___ . .. … …. --
THE
NEW STATES OF
Kings of
Egbert (802-839) – Saxon king of
kingdom solidifies
and expands into the
Ethelwulf (839-855)
Ethelbald (855-860)
Ethelbert (860-865)
Ethelred I (865-871)
Alfred (871-899) – “the Great.” Unifies most of southern and central
kingdom. Highly educated, he translates many Latin works into English. See more at:
http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=71315
Edward the Elder (899-924)
Athelstan (924-939) – conquers
northern
of
Edmund I (939-946)
Eadred (946-955)
Edwig (955-959)
Edgar (959-975)
Edward (975-978) – “the Martyr”
Ethelred II (978-1016) – “the Unraed”
Edmund II (1016) – “Ironside.” Deposed by the Danes.
Cnut (1016-1035) – first of the Danish kings. Cnut serves as king of England and Denmark.
Harold I (1035-1040) – “Harefoot.”
Harthacnut (1040-1042) – last of the Danish kings, half-brother of Edward the Confessor.
Edward (1042-1066) – “the Confessor.” Saxon. As his reign wore on, he became increasingly interested in spiritual matters;
commissioned construction of Westminster Abbey. See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=84904
Harold II (1066) – last of the Saxon kings, killed in battle by William I of Normandy at Hastings. See more at:
http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=90902
William I (1066-1087) – “the Conqueror” – first of the
Norman kings. Defeats
Harold in
His victory is due in part to his equipping his cavalry with stirrups, a relatively recent innovation, which allowed horsemen to maneuver in battle easier. An element of French culture begins to blend in with the Anglo-Saxon culture, altering the course of the English language and English society. William commissions the Domesday Book to better account for tax revenues, which first gave last names to many English families. See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=120551
William II (1087-1100)
Henry I (1100-1135) – last of the Norman kings
Stephen (1135-1154) – House of
Henry II (1154-1189) – first of the Angevin or Plantagenet kings
Richard I (1189-1199) – “Lionheart”
John (1199-1216) – brother of Richard I. Magna Carta (1215)
Henry III (1216-1272)
Edward I (1272-1307)
Edward II (1307-1327)
Edward III (1327-1377) – beginning of Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)
Richard II (1377-1399) – last of the Angevin Dynasty, deposed in 1399 by Henry IV
Henry IV (1399-1413) – first of the Lancaster Dynasty
Henry V (1413-1422)
Henry VI (1422-1461, briefly restored 1470-1) – war of the Roses, 1455-85, last of the
Lancastrians, deposed by House of York. The War of the Roses is a major civil war between two branches of the
royal family, the Yorks and the Lancasters. Both houses are effectively destroyed and the prominence of England is wrecked. It would take many decades for England to recover. See more on the War of the Roses at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=110648
Edward IV (1461-1483) – first of the York Dynasty
Edward V (1483)
Richard III (1483-1485) – last of the Yorks, deposed in 1485
Henry VII (1485-1509) – end of the War of the Roses, beginning of Tudor Dynasty
Henry VIII (1509-1547) –6 wives: 2 divorced, 2 executed, 1 dies in childbirth, 1 widowed. Because the Roman Catholic
Church refuses to grant him a divorce from his first wife, he breaks away from the church and forms his own, the
Anglican Church, or Church of England. After his death, the divide between Anglicans and Catholics leads to
numerous power struggles throughout the kingdom. See more on Henry at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=91494
Edward VI (1547-1553) – sickly son of Henry VIII. Dies as a teenager.
Mary (1533-1558) – “Bloody Mary” for her persecution of Protestants.
Elizabeth I (1558-1603) – last of the Tudors. 1st attempts at American colonization.
See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=85207
James I (1603-1625) – Stuart Dynasty. King James English Bible translation.
See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=94052
Charles I (1625-1649) – English Civil War. Executed for treason, monarchy abolished.
See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=79494
(Commonwealth,
1649-1660) Oliver Cromwell and the parliamentary forces seize the
government. In 1653,
frustrated
by the corruption of Parliament, Cromwell seizes control of the government and
establishes himself as Lord Protector until his death in 1658. See more on Cromwell at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=82179
Charles II (1660-1685) – Restoration. See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=79495
James II (1685-1688) – overthrown in “Glorious Revolution” See more at:
http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=94053
William III (with Mary II, sister of James II, until 1694) (1689-1702) – invited to become
king by Parliament. English Bill of Rights (1689) expands civil liberties.
Anne (1702-1714) – sister of James II, last of the Stuart Dynasty
George I (1714-1727) --
responsibilities to Parliament.
George II (1727-1760)
George III (1760-1820) – because of deteriorating mental state, regency declared in 1810.
American Revolution, Napoleonic Wars, War of 1812 during his reign
George IV (1820-1830) – declared regent in 1810, rules outright upon father’s death.
William IV (1830-1837)
Victoria I (1837-1901) –
Edward VII (1901-1910)
George V (1910-1936) – World War I.
Edward VIII (1936-1937) -- abdication crisis
George VI (1937-1953) – World War II
Elizabeth II (1953-present)
Kings of
Clovis I (481-511) – Frankish kingdom after collapse of Rome now expands,
divides kingdom after his death. His conversion to Christianity converts the Franks to the faith.
Childebert I (511-558) -- Son of Clovis I; King of Paris
Thierry I (511-534) -- Son of Clovis I, King of Austrasia
Clodimir (511-524) -- Son of Clovis I, King of Orleans
Clothaire I (511-561) -- Fourth Son of Clovis I, King of Soissons & France
SECOND DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM
Charibert, Son of Clothaire I; King of Paris (561-567)
Guntram, Son of Clothaire I; King of Orleans & Burgundy (561-593)
Chilperic I, Son of Clothaire I; King of Neustria at Soissons (561-584)
Sigebert I, Son of Clothaire I; King of Austrasia at Metz (561-575)
Childebert II, Son of Sigebert I; King of Austrasia & Burgundy (575-596)
Clothaire II, Son of Chilperic I; sole King (613-628)
Dagobert I, Son of Clothaire II; sole King (628-638)
Clovis II, Son of Dagobert I (638-656)
Dagobert II, King of Austrasia (656-679)
Clothaire III, King of Neustria (656-670)
Childeric II, Son of Clovis II (670-673)
Thierry III, Son of Clovis II, King of Burgundy (673-691)
Clovis III, King of Neustria (691-695)
Childebert III, King of Neustria (695-711)
Dagobert III, King of Neustria (711-715)
Chilperic II, Son of Childeric II (715-720)
Thierry IV, Son of Dagobert III (720-737)
Childeric III, Son of Chilperic II (742-752)-- deposed by Pepin the Short
THE CAROLINGIANS
Pepin the Short (752-768) -- Son of Charles Martel, mayor of the royal palace; Carolingian Dynasty
Charlemagne (Charles the Great) (768-814) – France reaches its greatest Medieval
extent,
with lands extending from northern
tributary states. He institutes many administrative reforms, ushering in the “Carolingian Renaissance,” a brief revival in
learning. His empire is divided after his death among his sons. See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=79484
Louis I, Son of Charlemagne (814-840)
Charles the Bald (840-877)
Louis II, Son of Charles the Bald (877-879)
Louis III, Son of Louis II (879-882)
Charles the Fat, Son of Louis the German (882-888)
Count Eudes (888-893) -- Elected
King at
Charles III, the Simple (893-923) – “the Simple”
Raoul (Rudolf of Burgundy) (923-936) -- Elected King by the nobles
Louis IV (936-954) -- son of Charles the Simple
Lothair (954-986)
Louis V (986-987)
THE CAPETIANS
Hugh Capet (987-996) – House of Capet to 1328, Kingdom of France established
Robert II (996-1031)
Henry I (1031-1060)
Philip I (1060-1108)
Louis VI (1108-1137) – “The Fat”
Louis VII (1137-1180)
Philip II Augustus (1180-1223)
Louis VIII (1223-1226)
Louis IX (1226-1270) – “St. Louis” for his piety.
Philip III (1270-1285) – “The Bold”
Philip IV (1285-1314) – “The Fair”
Louis X (1314-1316)
Philip V (1316-1322)
Charles IV (1322-1328)
THE VALOIS
Philip VI (1328-1350) beginning of House of Valois and the Hundred Years’ War
John (1350-1364)
Charles V (1364-1380)
Charles VI (1380-1422) – age 12 when assumes the throne.
Charles VII (1422-1461) – end of the Hundred Years War
Louis XI (1461-1483) – “The Spider,” for his devious political machinations
Charles VIII (1483-1498)
Louis XII (1498-1515)
Francis I (1515-1547)
Henry II (1547-1559) – killed in a jousting tournament.
Francis II (1559-1560) – age 15 when assumes throne
Charles IX (1560-1574) – age 10 when assumes throne
Henry III (1574-1589) -- brother of Charles IX and Francis II
THE BOURBONS
Henry IV (1589-1610) -- Protestant deposes Henry III after French Wars of Religion, House
of Bourbon. In deference to the majority Catholic population, becomes a Catholic but retains rights for Protestant
Huguenots.
Louis XIII (1610-1643) – dismisses the Estates General in 1614, body not be recalled for 175 years.
Louis XIV (1643-1715) – autocrat who portrays himself as “Sun King,” comes to throne at age 4. Constructs the famous
palace at
See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=98567
Louis XV (1715-1774) Great-grandson of Louis XIV, comes to throne at age 5.
Louis XVI (1774-1792) Grandson of Louis XV, deposed 1792 and
executed 1793.
Louis XVIII (1814-1824) – Restoration -- Brother of Louis XVI
Charles X (1824-30) Younger brother of Louis XVI and XVIII, deposed in July
Revolution of 1830
Louis Philippe (1830-48) – last king of France, overthrown in Revolution of 1848.
Kings of
Spain was created in 1492 as the
kingdoms of Ferdinand II Aragon and Isabella I of Castille
united to create a new power in the Iberian Peninsula to challenge
Portugal. Although Castille
and Aragon continued to be separate in domestic matters, with their personal
union, Ferdinand and Isabella ruled them together as one dominion. Ferdinand
also conquered the southern part of Navarre and annexed
it to
Habsburg
Ferdinand of
replaced as regent by her husband, Philip I (1504-6),
resumes regency over Castille until 1516. Although Ferdinand was the second Aragonese king to take the name, he was the fifth Castilian
king to take the name Ferdinand.
Charles I
of Spain, a.k.a. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1516-1556) -- Reformation
in Europe, Conquest of Aztecs in America, 1519-1521
Philip II,
1556-1598
Philip III, 1598-1621 – Thirty Years War begins, 1618.
Philip IV, 1621-1665 – Thirty Years War ends, 1648.
Charles II, "the Bewitched," 1665-1700
Bourbon
Phillip V,
1700-1746, briefly deposed, 1724
Louis, 1724
Philip V (restored), 1724-1746
Ferdinand VI, 1746-1769 – Seven Years’ War. Takes the name Ferdinand the Sixth after Ferdinand V (1492-1516) to continue the tradition of the Castilian kings.
Charles III, 1759-1788
Charles IV, 1788-1808, deposed by the French.
Bonaparte
Joseph
Bonaparte, 1808-1813, brother of Napoleon Bonaparte of France. His installation sparks a massive rebellion
in Spain, known as the Peninsular War.
Bourbon (restored)
Ferdinand VII, "the wished one," 1813-1833. Argentina, Mexico, and Colombia win independence.
Isabella II , 1833-1868
Savoy
Amadeus I,
1871-1873, He is deposed and the monarchy
abolished.
Bourbon
(restored)
Alfonso XII, 1875-1885 – takes name after medieval kings of Castille and Leon, eleven altogether.
Alfonso
XIII , 1886-1931, Spanish-American War, 1898. Last possessions in the Americas stripped
away. A republic is declared in 1931 and
the monarchy is abolished.
Second Spanish Republic, 1931-1939,
Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939.
Francisco Franco Regime,
1939-1976 -- dictatorship.
Bourbon
(restored)
Juan Carlos I, 1975-present.
Czars of
The history of the czars of Russia dates to the Viking invasions of the region. Beset by hardship, civil strife, and invasions, the Russian state had difficulty organizing into a coherent nation with a center of power for many centuries.
Rurik (862-879) – A semi-legendary leader, he is
considered the first leader of Russia.
He becomes a prince in Novgorod Denmark
Oleg
(879 -912) – expands his holdings to include Kiev. See more on Oleg at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=104753
Igor (912-945)
Olga (regent 945- [957] 964)
Svyatoslav I ([957] 964-972)
Yaropolk Svyatoslavich (972-978)
St. Vladimir I (978-1015) – married Byzantine Princess Anna Porphyrogenita and converted to Orthodox Christianity. He had 24 children with 12 wives over his lifetime. Russia becomes a Christian nation. See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=119336
Syvatopolk I “Okayanii” (1015-1019) – known as “the accursed.”
Yaroslav Vladimirovich
“the wise” (1019-1054)
Izyaslav I (1054-1078) -- Prince of Turov,
then of Kyiv.
Vsyevolod I (1078-1093)
Svyatopolk II (1093-1113)
Vladimir II
(1113-1125)
Mstislv I (1125-1132)
Yaropolk II (1132-1139)
Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (1139, 1150, 1151-54, 1161-67) – Grand Duke of Kiev
intermittently.
Vsyevolod II (1139-1146) – ruled Kiev briefly.
Igor
II (Prince of Kiev
Izyaslav II (1146-1149, 1151-1154) – ruled Kiev
Yuri I
(1149-1151, 1155-1157)
Rostislav Mstislavich (Duke of Smolensk 1128-1168, and Duke of Kiev
1154-1155, 1159-1161)
Msitislav II (1167-1169)
Vladimir II Mstislavich (prince of Kiev, 1169-1171).
Gleb Yur'yevich (prince of Kiev, 1169 - 1171) ruled jointly with
Vladimir II.
Mikhail Yur'yevich (prince of Kiev Vladimir
Roman Rostislavich (prince of Kiev
Vsyevolod Yuryevich (1172) – deposed.
Yaroslav Izyaslavich (1173-75)
Andrei Bogoliubski (1157-1174) -- Grand
prince of Vladimir 1169-1174.
Mikhalko Yuryevich
(1174-1176) -- prince of Vladimir.
Vsyevelod III (1176-1212) – power shifts back to Vladimir from
Kiev.
Rurik Rostoslavich (prince of Kiev, 1207-1211)
Yuri II (Prince of
Konstantin (1216-1219)
Yuri II (1219-1238) – restoration.
Yaroslav II (1238-1246)
Syvatoslav III (1246-1248)
Mikhail Khorobrit (1248)
Andrei II
(1249-1252) – abdicated in 1252, died in 1264.
Alexander Yaroslavich (1252-1263)
Yaroslav III (1263-1272) – Grand Duke of Tver.
Vasili Yaroslavich (1272-1276)
Dimitri I Alexandrovich (1276-1281, 1283-1294) – briefly deposed.
Andrei Alexandrovich (1281-1283, 1294-1304) – overthrows Dimitri, but returns to throne in 1294.
Dimitri I Alexandrovich (1283-1294) – restoration
Andrei Alexandrovich (1294-1304) – restoration
Mikhail Yaroslavich (1304-1319)
Yuri III Danilovich (Grand Duke of
Moscow, 1303-1325) – also Grand Prince of Vladimir
Dmitri Mikhailovich (1322-1325) -- grand prince of Tver and Vladimir.
Alexander Mikhailovich (1323-1328, 1337-39)
Ivan I
(1325-1341) – power shifts to Moscow, Ivan I rules as Grand Duke.
Semyon Ivanovich
“Gordii”
(1341-1353) – also known as “the proud.”
He and his family died in the Black Death.
Ivan II (1353-1359)
Dimitri Konstantinovich (1359-1363)
Dimitri Ivanovich (1359-1389)
Vasili I (1389-1425)
Vasili II “the dark” (1425-1433) – known as “the dark” because he had
been blinded. Briefly deposed in 1433.
Yuri IV
(1433-1434)
Vasili II (1434-1462) – second reign.
Ivan III “the great” - (1462-1505)
Vasili III (1505-1533)
Ivan IV “the Terrible” (1533-1584) – known for his immense cruelty,
including killing his own son.
Supervised construction of the Kremlin, but had the architects blinded
so they could never again see something so beautiful. First to assume the title of czar. See more at http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=93837
Feodor I (1584-1598)
Boris Gudunov (1598-1605) His death sparked “the time of troubles” in which chaos engulfed Russia and no clear ruler emerged until 1613. See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=89231
Feodor II (1605) – young son of Boris Gudunov. Assassinated.
Lzhyidimitri I “False Dimitri” (1605-1606) –
attempted to seize the throne, but murdered in 1606. No clear ruler between 1605 and 1613.
Mikhail Romanov (1613-1645) – beginning of the Romanov Dynasty. Stability restored to Russia.
Alexis (1645-1676)
Feodor III (1676-1682)
Sophia
(regent 1682-1689) -- She was the elder sister of Ivan V and half-sister of the
ten-year-old Peter I and acted as regent for them both.
Ivan V
(jointly with Peter 1682-1689) – because he was mentally retarded, a regent
ruled in his place. He died in 1696.
Peter I
“the Great” (jointly 1682-1689, as sole
ruler, 1689-1725) – Modernized Russia, constructing the first Russian navy and
expanding the territory and influence of Russia. He also started the first Russian newspaper
and became the first Russian dentist.
See more on Peter at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=106768
Catherine I
(1725-1727) – second wife of Peter the Great.
Peter II (1727-1730) – a teenager, he dies of smallpox.
Anna (1730-1740)
Ivan VI
(1740-1741) – an infant when he came to the throne, the only heir
available. Russia was ruled through a
regent at this time. His regime was
overthrown in a coup organized by Princess Elizabeth in 1741. He lived in prison as an insane derelict
until murdered by guards in 1762.
Elizabeth
(1741-1762) – daughter of Peter the Great.
Peter III
(1762) – assassinated.
Catherine II “the Great” (1762-1796) – Became czar after she and her lover
had Peter III assassinated. Expanded Russian territory, annexing Poland
Paul I
(1796-1801) -- son theoretically of Peter III and Catherine II, he was
assassinated in 1801.
Alexander I
(1801-1825) – Initially relaxes censorship and frees political prisoners, but
steps up repression after Russia is invaded by Napoleon and repelled in 1812.
Nicholas I
(1825-1855) – brother of Alexander.
Known as the “policeman of Europe,” he routinely intervenes in other
countries to prevent the spread of revolutions.
Alexander
II (1855-1881) – He freed the serfs
in 1861, expanded the powers of local governments, and embarked on other
reforms. He was assassinated in 1881.
Alexander
III (1881-1894) – known for
censorship and detention of political dissidents.
Nicholas II (1894-1917) – the last czar. He is deposed by republican revolutionaries
in February 1917 as food shortages and losses in World War I broke the patience
of the Russian people. He, his wife, and
four children are captured by the communists and executed in 1918. See more at: http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=103777
Sultans of the
The
Osman I (1281-ca.1324) – considered the first Ottoman emperor. Carves a powerful kingdom from his small principality
in
Orhan (ca.
1324-1360) – son of Osman I. Captures northwestern
VI in his fight
against John V. Marries John VI’s
daughter Theodora and gains right to make raids in the Balkans. Turks begin to carve a stronghold in
Murad I (1360-1389) – son of Orhan. Leads Ottomans to victory against the Bulgarians and the Serbs in 1370s and 1380s,
crushing the Serbian Empire and the
Bulgarian Empire.
Bayezid I Yildirim (1389-1403) – “Thunderbolt.” First to take title of sultan in 1394. Begins a failed 8-year blockade of
Mehmed I (1403-1421) – spends most
of his reign putting down rebellions against his rule. Makes
Murad II (1421-1444, 1446-1451) –
Loses control of
of
Mehmed II Fatih (1444-1446, 1451-1481) – “the Conqueror.” Son of Murad II and a slave girl. Comes to power at
age 12 after his father abdicates
in 1444, but deposed by his father in 1446.
Leads a coup to dethrone his father in 1451. Conquers the last remnant
of the
Bayezid II (1481-1512)
– takes control of
Selim I Yayuz (1512-1520) – “the Grim.” Defeats the Mamlukes,
securing control of
Süleiman I Kanuni (1520-1566) – “the Lawgiver.” Also known as the Magnificent, he embarks on a wide-ranging program of
legal reforms and ambitious
construction projects. He leads the
Ottomans to the height of their power, taking
Selim II (1566-1574)
– Ottomans take
Murad III (1564-1595)
– wars against
in 1578,
areas in
Mehmed III(1595-1603)
Ahmed I (1603-1617) – Comes to throne at age 13.
become sultan: Mustafa I, Osman II, and Murad IV.
Mustafa I (1617-1618, 1622-1623) – a weak ruler, he is deposed in 1618 and restored in 1622 because he is seen as so
weak and easy to manipulate. He is overthrown a second time in 1623 in
favor of Murad IV.
He dies quietly in
Osman II (1618-1622) – Age 14 when crowned, he attempts reforms to curb corruption and launches an ambitious but
failed
campaign against
Murad IV (1623-1640) – Comes to throne at age 11,
empire beset by internal strife.
1638. An alcoholic, Murad IV dies at 39 from injuries sustained in a drunken accident.
Ibrahim (1640-1648) – Turks lose control of
deposed and executed in 1648.
Mehmed IV (1648-1687)
Suleiman II (1687-1691)
Ahmed II (1691-1695)
Mustafa II (1695-1703)
Ahmed III (1703-1730)
Mahmud I (1730-1754)
Osman III (1754-1757)
Mustafa III (1757-1774) – Ottomans lose control of
Abduhamid I (1774-1789)
Selim III (1789-1807) – French
army, under Napoleon Bonaparte, invades
Mustafa IV (1807-1808)
Mahmud II (1808-1839) – Greek War
for
granted autonomy in 1830.
Abdulmecid I (1839-1861) – Crimean War, 1853-1856. Ottomans invaded by the Russians.
Abdulaziz (1861-1876)
Murad V (1876)
Abdulhamid II (1876-1909) –
Collapse of the empire accelerates.
Mehmed V (1909-1918) –
I, 1914-1918. Ottomans side with Central Powers, slaughter 1 million Armenians. Ottomans are defeated by the
Allies.
Mehmed VI (1918-1922) – 1919
Treaty of Versailles dismembers
Abdulmecid II (1922-1924) – Essentially serves a transitional role as the empire is dismantled by Mustafa Kemal and the
Young Turks to make way for a republic. He is sultan in name only, but has no effective power. A republic is declared in 1924.
Problems with the
Monarchy
Monarchies are based on the idea
that one man should control the nation and his word should be law. To avoid the problem of violent succession
disputes, the hereditary monarchy slowly developed, giving the throne not to
who may be best suited to govern but to whoever happened to be the king’s eldest
surviving child. Since a monarch’s word
is law in an absolute monarchy, there is no one to contradict it, no one to
tell him he cannot do such a thing. And
if there is a problem with the king, there is no way to remove him from
power. None of the monarchies had any
system in place for the removal of a king fro power for mismanagement,
corruption, or for physical imparity such as a protracted illness, mental
disability, or insanity.
The Middle Ages (AD 800- AD 1347)
Vikings – In the eighth and ninth centuries, the Vikings became the
most frightening power in
The Vikings were also known as great explorers. In the ninth century, the Vikings wrested control of Iceland away from the Irish. In 985, Erik the Red began settling the western coast of Greenland. One day, a trader missed the coast and sailed westward, sighting lands to the far west – Canada’s Baffin Island. Erik’s son, Leif (Thorvald) Eriksson was inspired to explore this territory. In 1001, he explored the eastern coast of Canada, encountering Baffin Island (which he named Helluland), Labrador (which he named Markland), and Newfoundland (which he named Vinland). Eriksson and his party decided to winter in Vinland. However, the native inhabitants, enraged at the presence of the Vikings, attacked the party and forced them off the island. Eriksson was killed. The Vikings tried over the next 15 years to colonize Vinland, but each attempt ended in failure. Europeans would not return to America for nearly 500 years. The power of the Vikings began to fade by the eleventh century.
MEDIEVAL SOCIETY
Feudalism was the system of labor in the Middle Ages. Peasants, seeking safety, would take refuge on a large manor controlled by a noble. In exchange for this protection and permission to cultivate small patches of land for their families, the nobles required the peasants to pay their debts in labor to the lord, either as farm labor or military service. This military service in turn gave the nobles the power to bargain for political concessions from their neighbors and the king. Kings would grant nobles land in exchange for their services. These tracts were known as fiefs. The system of labor for the peasants became a system of forced labor over time as families stayed on the manors for generations. Serfs, as they were known, were essentially enslaved by their debts to the noble and not allowed to leave the manor or even marry without the permission of the manorial lord. Chivalry, another aspect of medieval society, is the idea of civilized behavior that emerged among the nobles in the eleventh and twelfth centuries under the influence of the church. Under this code, knights and nobles were to conduct themselves with piety, bravery, and honor.
In twelfth century
Universities began as guilds of
students and guilds of teachers. The first was formed in
By the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, the cities of
The Crusades
First Crusade:
1095 – Pope Urban II, at Clermont, France, calls for Christians to retake Holy Lands
from Muslims
1098 – Crusading armies,
primarily French, take
1099 – Jerusalem taken by Crusaders in bloody fighting. Men, women, and children
massacred.
Four “Crusader States” established along Mediterranean coast: Edessa (N. Syria),
Antioch (N. and Central Lebanon), Tripoli (S. Lebanon), and Jerusalem (Israel and areas east of Jordan River)
1144 – County of Edessa retaken by Muslims
Second Crusade:
1147-1149 – St. Bernard of Clairvaux calls for a Crusade in response, enlisting Louis VII
of France and Emperor Conrad III of
Third Crusade:
1187 – Saladin retakes Jerusalem for the Muslims.
1189 – Richard I (Lionheart) of England, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, and Phillip
II Augustus of
Barbarossa dies shortly after arrival in bizarre drowning accident. English and French forces unable to advance inland away from support of their navies.
1192 -- Richard negotiates a peace settlement with Saladin, allowing Christian pilgrims
to enter
1193 – Saladin dies.
Fourth Crusade:
1193 – Pope Innocent III calls for a new Crusade.
1203 – Venetians, in an attempt to defeat their greatest commercial competitor, urge a
Crusader attack on
1204 – Crusaders retake
1204-1261 –
Latin Empire of
“Albigensian Crusade:”
1209-1229 – Albigensians, a group of heretics in southern France, had denounced church
corruption, rejected the Old Testament, baptism, and the priesthood, and preached a strict ascetic life. Pope Innocent III calls for a Crusade against them in 1208. Over the next 20 years, the Albigensians suffer horrible torture, burnings, and executions before being totally defeated. Thousands killed.
“Children’s Crusade:”
1212 – Nicholas of Cologne, age 10, urges children of Cologne to join him in a Crusade
to retake
Later Crusades:
Fifth Crusade: 1219-1221
Sixth Crusade: 1228
Seventh Crusade: 1248-1254
Eighth Crusade: 1270
In 1291, the
Christians are defeated at Acre, forcing them to surrender the last of the
Crusader states. The Crusades are ended
and the Holy Lands would remain under Muslim control. Other efforts to combat the Muslims,
particularly the Ottoman Turks as they swept across
EMERGENCE OF PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT
The thirteenth and early fourteenth
centuries see a move away from absolute monarchies that had begun to exert
themselves in
Golden Bull (1215) – Hungarian nobles gain the right to elect their kings rather than stay with a hereditary system. The system stays intact until the kingdom, under threat from the Ottoman Turks, is annexed by the Austrian Empire.
Magna Carta (1215) – “Great Charter” signed by John I of England agreeing to the rights of the nobility in England. See the Magna Carta at: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/magframe.htm. The Parliament emerges by the early fourteenth century as a body of advisors from the nobility to the king. Parliament would design tax bills to fund the kingdom. Powers and representation expand over time.
Estates General (1302) – French parliament, comprised of the three classes of French society: nobility, clergy, and peasantry. Like the English Parliament, the Estates General was designed as a taxing body, but the French kings tired of consulting with it and dissolved it in 1614.
The Black
Death
Reports emerged in
The Death Toll:
Approximately 25 million people died in Europe from the plague, roughly 1/3 of the population. England’s population would not reach pre-plague levels for another four centuries. 25% of the nobility died from the plague, while 40% of the clergy and 40% of the peasants died.
The Cause:
Bubonic Plague is most often identified as the culprit, supported by the observations of many medieval physicians. Spread by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, plague is spread from fleas (usually from rats and other rodents) to other animals through bites. The typical sign of the most common form of human plague is a swollen and very tender lymph gland, accompanied by sharp pain. Bubonic plague symptoms usually appear 2 to 6 days after being infected. When bubonic plague is left untreated, plague bacteria invade the bloodstream, where it spreads rapidly to cause an often fatal condition. It usually begins abruptly with chills and a high fever, and sometimes with extreme exhaustion and swelling in the glands. In the second stage, swollen, painful lymph nodes in the groin, thigh, underarm, or neck appear. The swollen glands are called “buboes,” where the term “bubonic” arises. 90% of plague victims develop this swelling, but 10% develop these swellings within the abdomen. As the infection deepens, the swellings are filled with a black fluid. Skin overlying affected areas may be smooth and reddened, but usually does not feel hot. Small skin lesions, often appearing to be either water-filled blisters or thick coagulated crusts, may develop at the sites of flea bites. Modern science can treat bubonic plague with antibiotics in the first two stages. The final phase consists of a contagious and often fatal form of pneumonia, with lesions in the lungs also occurring. Bubonic plague, untreated, has an 80% fatality rate. No treatments existed in the 1300s.
Recent scholars, however, have suggested that bubonic plague alone may not have been able to account for all of the cases, particularly areas struck in winter and areas that had no reports of rats. In other cases, large rodent populations existed but these areas did not report any widespread outbreaks.
More on bubonic plague: http://www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?objectid=9A20E533-E04E-4319-8398D78C67E606D7
Possible other diseases:
Pneumonic Plague?: Pneumonic plague is a cousin to bubonic plague, also caused by the Y. pestis bacteria. The symptoms of pneumonic plague begin one to four days after exposure to the bacteria. The first symptoms include fever, headache, weakness, and a bloody or watery cough due to infection of lungs (pneumonia). The pneumonia worsens over two to four days, and may cause septic shock and, without early treatment with antibiotics, death. Death from untreated pneumonic plague can occur in 48 hours.
Anthrax?: Symptoms usually appear within seven days of exposure, although in some cases the incubation period has been significantly longer than this. One form, Cutaneous anthrax infects the skin area. The initial symptoms for the possible Black Death-era outbreak, gastrointestinal anthrax, include fever, nausea, abdominal pain, and vomiting. As the disease progresses, there may also be vomiting of blood, bloody diarrhea, toxemia, shock and a bluish tinge to the skin and mucous membranes. Symptoms may also include collection of fluid in the tissues of the throat, and swelling of the lymph nodes. Inhalational anthrax typically begins with one to three days of fatigue, low-grade fever, and dry cough. These symptoms, typical of a mild upper respiratory tract infection, may be accompanied by an ache of feeling of heaviness in the chest and the area just below the chest. Following this relatively mild onset, there will be a period of more intense illness characterized by high fever, elevation of the pulse and respiratory rate, and difficult or labored breathing. Eventually pneumonia sets in and death within one week’s time. With all of these diseases, they can be spread in the final pneumonic phase of the disease. Anthrax, caused by the Bacillus anthracis spore, most commonly infects cattle, but eating meat infected with anthrax can cause its spread to humans. England in particular consumed a great deal of beef in the 14th century. Like bubonic plague, it has a mortality rate approaching 80%. Dormant anthrax spores have been found in some of the mass plague graves.
See more on anthrax at: http://www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?objectid=8C309507-1B2A-455D-8E0C16E2A63EF3A4
Consequences of the plague:
The plague also caused massive
economic changes as well. Entire
villages were abandoned. The feudal
system began to collapse in western Europe as many peasants left the manors
once the lords died. Many found a new
wealth from inheritances of family members who perished and from the rising
wages. Farm laborers, who were few in
number, could now demand higher wages from landowners desperate to find help on
the farms. Farm labor wages tripled in
some areas between 1347 and 1353. The
English Parliament in response passed the Statute of Laborers in 1351 to curb the
rising wages, mandating that wages be reduced to pre-plague levels. The law resulted in the stabilization of
wages and also a simmering resentment among the peasants. In 1358, French peasants exploded in anger
with the Jacquerie Revolt, rising up and murdering
nobles across France. The French
government barely managed to contain the revolt and restore order after a
number of bloody battles and massacres of peasants. Florentine woolworkers, known as the ciompi, also staged a rebellion in the 1370s, demanding
more say in the running of the Republic of Florence. By 1382, their new political rights are
stripped away in a counter-revolution.
The rising expectations of the lower classes fueled another rebellion of
the peasants, this time in England. The Peasants’
Rebellion of 1381, also known as Wat Tyler’s
Rebellion, was sparked by a massive tax dispute. A new tax had been imposed, and peasants in
eastern England, used to their rising incomes and quality of life saw this as
an attempt to crush their newfound prosperity.
A peasant army, led by a peasant named Wat Tyler and a preacher named John Ball, organized and
overran the nobles in the east. They
began marching toward London as Ball preached about the elimination of the
special privileges and titles of the nobility.
Richard II, seeing his kingdom in peril by the swarms of the peasant
army, rode to meet Tyler’s forces. He
promised to meet their demands if they dispersed. The army agreed, and King Richard used it as
an excuse to crush the army, and have its leaders arrested and executed. The monarchy and the existing social order in
WAR
WITHOUT END
The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)
erupted over the question of whether the English or the French should control
At the Battle of Agincourt (1415),
the English devastated the French with new weapons and new techniques. This battle effectively ended the medieval
style of warfare with noble knights fighting.
Instead of a handful of nobles, the English paid peasants to act as
infantry and used the Welsh Longbow with devastating effectiveness. The longbow could penetrate armor,
annihilating the French forces. Many
French nobles now sided with the English, but
In 1429, St. Jean of Arc, a
17-year-old peasant girl, received a vision that she was to lead the French
army to victory. After receiving
permission from King Charles VII, Jean went with the troops to the
fighting. She took up fighting in the
battle, and her presence inspired the French to fight on, winning the battle
for
The Crisis of the
Medieval Church
Over time, many began to see the
church as a political tool. Priests,
bishops, and cardinals were usually the best-educated men in the Middle Ages
and prized for their administrative services.
Many kings and nobles tried to appoint church officials solely for
political reasons. The Investiture Controversy (1075-1122) erupted over such a controversy. The pope refused to let the Holy Roman
Emperor appoint his own church officials.
The 47-year schism was resolved when it was decided that the emperor
could appoint his own officials but these officials would have to pay their
respects to
On intellectual issues, theologians tried to reconcile reason and faith. St. Thomas Aquinas in the mid-thirteenth century published his Summa Theologica in which he argued that reason came from truth. And God was the author of all truths, so therefore, reason and knowledge cannot be out of sync with religious faith. The work of Aquinas settled the issue until the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution several centuries later.
Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303) had
been at odds with King Philip IV of
Great
Schism (1377-1418) -- this was the crisis in church leadership when two and
even three men claimed to be pope, each excommunicating the other as a
pretender. Romans, fearing another
French pope and the return of the Avignon Papacy
surrounded the
Conciliarism was the movement that emerged to try to end schisms within the church through council discussions among prominent leaders of the church rather than rulings from the pope. The Council of Pisa (1409) deposed the two popes and selected a third pope. The other two popes refused to resign. The Council of Constance (1414-1418) then emerged to end the schism and agree for a framework for reforming the church. A new pope, Martin V (1417-1431) was then elected, and the three other popes either resigned or were deposed.
The
Renaissance
With the beginnings of the Renaissance in the late fourteenth or early fifteenth century, western Europe experienced an intellectual and social revolution. New Greco-Roman texts uncovered overthrow the Medieval beliefs about the world and inspire many thinkers to develop new theories of science, art, religion, and man’s role in the universe. These ideas quickly spread and began to create changes in the thinking of many and in the lives of their communities. Among the thinkers of this period:
Religious
Reformers:
Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) – A former monk and scholar, Erasmus calls for a
completely new understanding of education and theology within the Roman Catholic Church. In Handbook of the Christian Knight (1503), he urges Christians to concentrate more on making Christianity a more personally-held faith that directs the spiritual and daily life of believers rather than concentrate on church rituals. He issues a new Latin translation of the Bible in 1516, using ancient Greek versions. In The Praise of Folly (1511), he calls for reforms to the abuses occurring within the Church.
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – German monk and theology professor at the University of
Wittenberg. In 1517, he posts 95 theses on the door of the local cathedral to protest abuses and corruption within the Roman Catholic Church and presents his suggestions for reform. In 1521, he is excommunicated, and Luther responds with a series of damaging pamphlets condemning the authority of the pope and even the very need for one. As the Reformation expands, Germany and northern Europe embrace Luther and his ideas of the doctrine of spiritual salvation by faith alone and not by sacraments or good works and that individuals should rely on the saints or the church to act as intermediaries between them and God. He rejects other Catholic doctrines, such as celibacy of the priesthood and marries a former nun. By the mid-1520s, Lutheranism has become a revolutionary movement, sparking sharp protests and wars across Europe between Protestants and Catholics. Lutheranism remains a major Protestant faith.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) – Swiss priest ordained in 1506. His powerful sermons created a considerable stir in
John Calvin (1509-1564) – Another important Reformation figure, Calvin disagreed with the Lutherans on a number of
issues, but played a powerful role in the development of Protestantism. He outlines his beliefs in Institutes of the Christian Religion (1534-1536) and calls for the rejection of papal authority and for acceptance of salvation by faith alone, and the doctrine of predestination. He believed that the Bible should be accepted as the sole source of God's law, and man must interpret it and preserve the orderly world that God created. His beliefs led to a split among the Protestants and he sharply condemned the Anabaptist movement. Calvin’s theology played a very influential role in the development of the Puritan churches of England, as well as with the Presbyterians and the Baptists.
Menno Simons (1496-1561) – Rebuilds the philosophy of Anabaptism in the
Explorers:
With the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, and the Muslims controlling the land routes to India and China, western Europeans began considering new ways to reach the east. Advances in shipbuilding now made traveling on the high seas feasible, but still an expensive proposition. After the discovery of the American continents by Spain, Portugal, France, and England, the four nations (and still more) scramble to seize control of the new lands beginning in the 1500s.
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) – Leads Portugal’s earliest efforts at
exploration to secure trade and allies for his nation. He begins a navigation school to train merchants and naval officers new, more precise navigation techniques. His efforts make Portugal a naval and economic power in Europe.
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) – After convincing the new Spanish government to
give him three ships to reach
Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) – Accompanies several Spanish expeditions (1499-1500
and 1501-1502 )along the coast of
Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) – Spanish explorer. He begins a daring expedition to
explore the seas but dies in the
Hernando Cortes (1485-1547) – In 1519, Cortes and his 550 men disobey orders and
Embark on an expedition into Mexico to conquer the fabled Aztec Empire. He marches into the city without a fight, but the Aztecs soon rebel. After reorganizing his troops with his Native American allies, he reenters the Aztec capital (Tenochtitlan) in 1521, crushing the Aztecs.
Hernando
explorations of the inland of the
Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca (ca. 1490-ca. 1560) – Spanish conquistador who explores
the inland of the
Vasco de Gama (ca. 1460-1524) – Portuguese explorer who becomes the first man to
round the
Artists:
Michaelangelo (1475-1564) – Italian painter, sculptor, and architect. His painting on
the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (1508), depicting scenes from the Bible is considered one of the finest of the Renaissance.
Raphael (1483-1520) – influential Italian painter.
Donato di Donatello (ca. 1386-1466) – influential Florentine sculptor.
Leonardo DaVinci (1452-1519) – Florentine painter, sculptor, and inventor. Known for
his powerful works such as the Mona Lisa (1506) and St. John the Baptist (1516). Fascinated by science and the natural world, he tinkered with architectural designs, plans for elaborate canal systems, a swinging bridge for river traffic, and even a primitive helicopter. Experimenting with different painting techniques, he produced the famous fresco The Last Supper (1495-1498). The experiment met with mixed results and resulted in numerous attempts to restore the painting, the last of which was completed in 1999. The painting, however, has remained an excellent example of structure, scale, and religious devotion.
Northern Renaissance Humanism/Christian Humanism – This is the Renaissance style that develops in northern
William Shakespeare (1546-1616) – famed English playwright and poet. He single-handedly changed the course of
English literature with his masterful plays, introducing a whole range of new phrases, literary images, and dramatic styles. His plays include classics such as Romeo and Juliet, which has become synonymous with romantic tragedy, The Tragedy of Julius Caesar, which has become the image of the fall of the Roman Republic in the minds of modern westerners, and dozens of others. View his works at: http://the-tech.mit.edu/Shakespeare/works.html
Scientists
and Thinkers:
Johannes Guttenberg (1400?-1468) – With his perfection of the movable-type printing press, the German native
Guttenburg perhaps allowed the Renaissance to flourish. The printing press allowed books to be printed at a rapid rate and at a low cost. It was now possible for everyone to own a book and the publishing industry exploded. The first book Guttenburg printed was the Bible in 1450.
Petrarch (1304-1374) – Considered to be the father of Italian Renaissance humanism.
He searches through monastic libraries in search of ancient Latin and Greek texts, discovering many long thought to have been lost, and has them distributed throughout the intellectual community of Europe.
Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) – Polish cleric, mathematician, and astronomer. In
1543, he publishes On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, shattering the long-held notion that the Earth is the center of the universe and instead presenting the modern idea that the planets revolve around the Sun. This corrected the growing observational conflicts with the geocentric system by providing a whole new understanding of the solar system. His theory creates little stir at first, but would become increasingly controversial.
Galileo (1564-1642) – Italian astronomer who makes the first observations of the night
sky with a telescope, altering astronomical study forever. His discoveries include lunar mountains, four moons orbiting Jupiter (out of some 16 known today), the phases of Venus as it orbited the Sun, and the rings around Saturn (most astronomers believed the rings to be completely solid until the 1890s). He concluded that the planets were composed of a material substance similar to Earth and not some perfect, unchanging, ethereal substance. Galileo also concluded that the Earth and the planets orbited the Sun. These conclusions shocked Catholic officials who believed the heavens were made of a spiritual substance and that Earth was the center of God’s creation. Galileo is condemned by the church, a ruling not overturned for 350 years.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) – Danish mathematician and astronomer. He develops
the laws of planetary motion, differing slightly with Copernicus by stating that planetary orbits are not perfectly circular but elliptical, a contention upheld to this day by observations.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) – Although his influences extend more into the
Enlightenment period, Newton more than any other figure of this time revolutionized the way the West saw the universe. His most important work, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia), spells out the universal laws of gravitation and motion still used by scientists to this day. His three laws of motion: a body at rest stays at rest unless acted on by some other force (inertia), the rate of change of motion is proportional to the force acting on it (acceleration), and a body in motion will stay in motion at the same rate and direction unless acted on by another force (momentum). His theory of gravitation changes the entire study of astronomy. He develops calculus to demonstrate how these laws work mathematically.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) – French mathematician and philosopher. He develops a
system of graphing coordinates and creates a firestorm among philosophers with Discourse on Method (1637). In this work, he states that an individual can never be absolutely certain about anything in the world around him except his own existence. This work introduces the famous phrase, “I think therefore I am” or in the original Latin, “Cogito ergo sum.”
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) – Belgian physician who undertook new studies of
human anatomy that led to new understandings of medicine and the workings of the human body. His 1543 book, On the Fabric of the Human Body, discards many ancient errors about the workings of the body.
William Harvey (1578-1657) – With On the Motion of the Heart (1657), he develops the
modern theory for the circulation of blood in the body, creating the modern understanding of human physiology.
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) – French mathematician and physicist who develops new
theories regarding probability and conic sections. He also develops a mechanical calculating machine and new laws regarding air pressure. He attempts to reconcile Christianity and science with a number of treatises. Formulates Pascal’s Wager which states that those who believe in God will gain eternity if God exists and will lose nothing if he does not, while non-believers could only hope to break even.
AGE OF DISCOVERY
The rediscovery of ancient Greek knowledge of cartography in Europe awakened a new interest in sailing outside the
European scholars knew that the world was round by this time.
In 1492, the Iberian states of Castille and Aragon united under Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille to form
The
East by his sailing West. England, France, and Portugal had turned him down. Though everyone believed his
expedition was technically possible, it would require the most advanced naval technology available at the time, a very
expensive proposition. Columbus raised money for voyage and got 3 Spanish ships, the Nina, Pinta, and the Santa Maria.
He set sail and reached the New World on Oct. 12, 1492.
He discovered an isle in Bahamas, San Salvador, discovered friendly natives and sailed on, still looking for the Indies.
He also discovered Cuba and Hispaniola and sizable amounts of gold jewelry on first of 4 voyages. He left his men behind on
Hispaniola and returned to Spain. He returned to Hispaniola the next year with 17 ships and orders to treat natives
affectionately. But the men he had left behind had run wild — raping and pillaging the Indian population. The Indians
rose against them and killed 10 Spaniards. The furious explorers captured 500 natives and shipped them to Europe and
the slave markets there.